1. The early history of Greek philosophy, especially the history from Thales to Plato, is a splendid story. It is almost too good to be true. In every generation we find at least one new philosophy, one new cosmology of staggering originality and depth. How was this possible? Of course one cannot explain originality and genius. But one can try to throw some light on them. What was the secret of the ancients? I suggest that it was a tradition - the tradition of critical discussion.
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vocabulary
1. splendid: superb, magnificent, wonderful, good, excellent
2. cosmology: a scientific study of the universe and its origin and development
3. at least: at the very least, at the least
4. staggering: astonishing, surprising, very difficult to believe
5. originality original a.: existing from the beginning, first or earliest, newly created, fresh, creative
6. genius: creativity
7. throw/cast/shed light on: make something clearer
8. the ancients: the people who lived in ancient times, especially, The Egyptians, Greeks and Romans
9. tradition: the passing of beliefs or customs from one generation to the next, a belief or custom passed on in this way
10. critical: of criticism
구문
1. too ~ to ~ 너무 ~해서 ~할 수 없다.
It is almost too good to be true = It is almost so good that it is not true
2. I will try to put the problem more sharply. In all or almost all civilizations we find something like religious and cosmological teaching, and in many societies we find schools. Now schools, especially primitive schools, all have, it appears, a characteristic structure and function. Far from being places of critical discussion they make it their task to impart a definite doctrine, and to preserve it, pure and unchanged. It is the task of a school to hand on the tradition, the doctrine of its founder, its first master, to the next generation, and to this end the most important thing is to keep the doctrine inviolate. A school of this kind never admits a new idea. New ideas are heresies, and lead to schism; should a member of the school try to change the doctrine, then he is expelled as a heretic. But the heretic claims, as a rule, that his is the true doctrine of the founder. Thus not even the inventor admits that he has introduced an invention; he believes, rather, that he is returning to the true orthodoxy which has somehow been perverted.
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vocabulary
1. put: express
2. sharply: exactly, precisely
3. school: 학파
4. characteristic: typical
5. function: special activity or purpose
6. far from ~: not at all ~, almost the opposite of ~
7. definite: clear, beyond doubt, apparent
8. doctrine: a belief or beliefs held and taught by a church, a political party, a group of scientists, etc
9. task: a piece of work that has to be done
10. impart: reveal, make known
11. hand on: pass on, transfer
12. inviolate: fully respected and never harmed
13. heresy: a belief or an opinion that is contrary to what is generally accepted, especially in religion. heretic 사람 명사
14. lead to: bring about, cause, produce
15. schism[sizəm]: strong disagreement
16. expel: banish
17. claim: insist
18. as a rule: generally
19. orthodoxy: the state of being orthodox
20. pervert: turn something away from its proper nature or use
구문
1. they make it their task to impart a definite doctrine, and to
가목적어 진목적어
preserve it, pure and unchanged
2. It is the task of a school to hand on the tradition, the doctrine of
가주어 진주어 (its founder = its first master: 동격관계)
its founder, its first master, to the next generation
3. should a member of the school try to change the doctrine, then he is expelled as a heretic = if a member of the school should try to change the doctrine, then he is expelled as a heretic
(if의 생략으로 조동사 주어 본동사 순서인 should a member of the school try ~의 문장구조가 이루어짐. if 절에서 should가 쓰이면 매우 낮은 가능성을 의미함.)
4. pure and unchanged = 앞의 it 즉, a definite doctrine을 현재 상태로 수식함.
5. to keep the doctrine inviolate
목적어 목적보어
3. In this way all changes of doctrine - if any - are surreptitious changes. They are all presented as re-statements of the true sayings of the master, of his own words, his own meaning, his own intentions.
It is clear that in a school of this kind we cannot expect to find a history of ideas, or even the material for such a history. For new ideas are not admitted to be new. Everything is ascribed to the master. All we might reconstruct is a history of schisms, and perhaps a history of the defence of certain doctrines against the heretics.
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vocabulary
1. surreptitious: secret
2. intention: a thing intended, an aim or a plan
3. reconstruct: construct again
구문
1. It is clear that in a school of this kind we cannot expect to find a
가주어 진주어
history of ideas, or even the material for such a history
2. For new ideas are not admitted to be new = For new ideas are not admitted to be new
(admit A to be B = A를 B라고 인정하다의 구문이 수동태로 쓰였음. 즉, 새로운 아이디어들은 새롭다고 인정되지 않는다는 의미임.)
3. ascribe/attribute/impute A to B = A가 B로부터 기인한다고 생각하다라는 중요한 구문임. 여기서는 수동태로 쓰였음. Everything is ascribed to the master를 능동태로 바꾸어 보면 People또는 Students ascribe everything to the master임.
4. There cannot, of course, be any rational discussion in a school of this kind. There may be arguments against dissenters and heretics, or against some competing schools. But in the main it is with assertion and dogma and condemnation rather than argument that the doctrine is defended.
The great example of a school of this kind among the Greek philosophical schools is the Italian School founded by Pythagoras. Compared with the Ionian school, or with that of Elea, it had the character of a religious order, with a characteristic way of life and a secret doctrine. The story that a member, Hippasus of Metapontum, was drowned at sea because he revealed the secret of the irrationality of certain square roots, is characteristic of the atmosphere surrounding the Pythagorean school, whether or not there is any truth in this story.
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vocabulary
1. rational: based on reason
2. dissent v. : have or express opinions which are opposed to common or officially held ones or to official religious teaching
3. compete: try to win by defeating others, struggle, fight
4. in the main: mainly, chiefly
5. rather than ~ : ~라기 보다는 = more exactly than
6. assert: claim
7. dogma: a belief of beliefs held by a authority or group, which others are expected to accept without argument
8. defend: protect, guard defence n.
9. found - founded - founded = build - built - built
10. character: special quality, feature, characteristic
11. square roots: 제곱근
12. drown: 익사하다
13. reveal: show, make known
14. rational: reasonable, suitable, proper ↔ irrational irrationality n.
15. atmosphere: surroundings
16. condemn: find fault with, criticise, rebuke condemnation n.
구문
1. it is with assertion and dogma and condemnation rather than argument that the doctrine is
it is ~ that의 강조구문임.
defended
2. Compared with the Ionian school, or with that of Elea, it had the
compared라는 과거분사로 시작되는 분사구문,즉 수동의 의미
character of a religious order, with a characteristic way of life and a secret doctrine.
3. The story that a member, Hippasus of Metapontum, was drowned
The story와 that a member~ roots까지는 동격으로 긴 주어임. 의미는 “어떤 제곱근의 불합리성의 비밀을 폭로했기 때문에 구성원이었던 메타폰툼의 히파수스가 익사 당했다는 이야기는”이 됨.
at sea because he revealed the secret of the irrationality of certain
square roots, is characteristic of the atmosphere surrounding the
surrounding으로 시작하는 분사구문인데 현재분사이기 때문에 능동의 분사구문임. the atmosphere를 수식함.
Pythagorean school, whether or not there is any truth in this story.
양보절로 “그 이야기에 진실성이 있든 아니든”의 의미로 no matter whether there is any truth in this story or not으로 바꾸어 쓸 수 있음.
5. But among Greek philosophic schools, the early Pythagoreans were an exception. Leaving them aside, we could say that the character of Greek philosophy, and of the philosophical schools, is strikingly different from the dogmatic type of school here described. I have shown this by an example: the story of the problem of change which I have told is the story of a critical debate, of a rational discussion. New ideas are propounded as such, and arise as the result of open criticism. There are few, if any, surreptitious changes. Instead of anonymity we find a history of ideas and of their originators.
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vocabulary
1. exception: a person or thing that is not included, the action of excluding somebody or something or the state of being excluded.
2. striking: attracting attention or interest because of being colorful, unusual or extreme strikingly ad.
3. describe: state, express description n.
4. debate: a formal argument or discussion of a question, argument or discussion
5. propound: put something forward for consideration or solution, suggest
6. instead of: in place of, in lieu of
7. anonymous: with a name that is not known or not made public anonymity n.
8. originate: begin, start, introduce, initiate.
구문
1. Leaving them aside, we could say that the character of Greek
분사구문
philosophy, and of the philosophical schools, is strikingly different
from the dogmatic type of school here described
분사구문으로 앞의 the dogmatic type of school을 수식함.
6. Here is a unique phenomenon, and it is closely connected with the astonishing freedom and creativeness of Greek philosophy. How can we explain this phenomenon? What we have to explain is the rise of a tradition. It is a tradition that allows or encourages critical discussions between various schools and, and more surprisingly still, within one and the same school. For nowhere outside the Pythagorean school do we find a school devoted to the preservation of a doctrine. Instead we find changes, new ideas, modifications, and outright criticism of the master.
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vocabulary
1. unique: unlike anything else, very unusual
2. connect: combine, join
3. astonishing: surprising, staggering, shocking
4. creativeness: creativity, originality
5. explain: give or be reason for something, account for something, describe
6. phenomenon: a fact or an even in nature or society
7. one and the same: the same
8. still: much (more surprisingly still에서) 의미는 “훨씬 더 놀랍게”
9. devote: give one's energy, time, etc to somebody or something, dedicate
10. preserve: keep something in its original state or in good condition
preservation n.
11. modify: change something slightly to improve it or make it less extreme modification n.
12. outright: complete and clear, without any doubt
구문
1. It is a tradition that allows or encourages critical discussions
a tradition을 수식하는 관계대명사절
between various schools and, and more surprisingly still, within one
and the same school
2. For nowhere outside the Pythagorean school do we find a school
devoted to the preservation of a doctrine
앞의 명사 a school를 수식하는 분사구문. For는 Because의 의미이고, 문장 앞에 부정하는 말 nowhere가 왔기 때문에 조동사 do + 주어 we + 본동사 find의 구조가 되었음.
7. (In Parmenides we even find, at an early date, a most remarkable phenomenon - that of a philosopher who propounds two doctrines, one which he says is true, and one which he himself describes as false. Yet he makes the false doctrine not simply an object of condemnation or of criticism; rather he presents it as the best possible account of the delusive opinion of mortal men, and of the world of mere appearance - the best account which a mortal man can give.)
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vocabulary
1. remarkable: worth noticing, unusual or exceptional, striking, noticeable
2. yet: but, nevertheless
3. object: a thing aimed at, a purpose, an intention
4. rather: more exactly
5. present v.: propose, propound, suggest
6. account n.: explanation, description
7. delusive: not real, misleading
8. mortal: that must die, that cannot live for ever, causing death, fatal
9. mere: no better or more important than
구문
1. that of a philosopher who propounds two doctrines, one which he
that = the most remarkable phenomenon이고, who 이하는 앞의 a philosopher를 수식하는 관계대명사절임, which he says is true와 which he himself describes as false는 두 개의 관계대명사절로 앞의 one 즉, a doctrine를 수식하면서 who 이하의 관계대명사절에 속한 관계대명사절임. 두 가지 사물을 지칭할 때 하나는 (the) one, 나머지 하나는 the other로 표현하는데 여기서는 모두 one으로 표현하여 문법적 오류가 있음.
says is true, and one which he himself describes as false
2. the best account which a mortal man can give
the best account를 수식하는 관계대명사절
8. How and where was this critical tradition founded? This is a problem deserving serious thought. This much is certain: Xenophanes who brought the Ionian tradition to Elea was fully conscious of the fact that his own teaching was purely conjectural, and that others might come who would know better. I shall come back to this point again in my next and last section.
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vocabulary
1. found- founded - founded: build - built - built
2. deserve: have a quality or characteristic, or have done something that is worthy of reward, special treatment, etc = merit
3. conscious: knowing what is going on around one because one is able to use one's senses and mental powers = aware
4. fully: totally, thoroughly, absolutely, purely, completely
5. conjecture: guess, guessing
구문
1. This is a problem deserving serious thought
a problem을 수식하는 분사구문
2. Xenophanes who brought the Ionian tradition to Elea was fully
Xenophanes를 수식하는 분사구문
conscious of the fact that his own teaching was purely conjectural
that his own 이하 및 that others might 이하는 앞의 명사 the fact와 같은 동격절임 (동격절이 두 개임). the fact가 명사이므로 그와 같은 that이하의 절을 동격 명사절이라고 함.
and that others might come who would know better
who would know better는 the others(the other people)을 수식하는 관계대명사절임. 여기서 may의 과거형 might가 오고 will의 과거형 would가 온 것은 주절동사 was가 과거형이기 때문에 덜 중요한 종속적 동사가 과거형을 지니게 됨.
9. If we look for the first signs of this new critical attitude, this new freedom of thought, we are led back to Anaximander's criticism of Thales. Here is a most striking fact: Anaximander criticizes his master and kinsman, one of the Seven Sages, the founder of the Ionian school. He was, according to tradition, only about fourteen years younger than Thales, and he must have developed his criticism and his new ideas while his master was alive. (They seem to have died within a few years of each other.) But there is no trace in the sources of a story of dissent, of any quarrel, or of any schism.
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vocabulary
1. look for: try to find, seek
2. attitude: a way of thinking about somebody or something or behaving towards somebody or something
3. kinsman: a family relation, relative
4. according to: as stated or reported by somebody or something
5. sage: a very wise man
6. trace: a mark, an object or a sign showing what has existed or happened
7. quarrel: an angry argument or disagreement
8. dissent n.: holding opinions which differ from common or officially held ones
9. schism[sizəm]: a strong disagreement
구문
1. If we look for the first signs of this new critical attitude, this new
this new freedom of thought는 앞의 the first signs of this new critical attitude와 같은 것, 즉 동격임.
freedom of thought, we are led back to Anaximander's criticism of
be동사 + 과거분사 즉, 수동태로 “이끌려간다”의 의미임.
Thales
2. Anaximander criticizes his master and kinsman, one of the Seven
and= at the same time 색칠한 부분 세 곳은 모두 동격, 즉 같은 것임.
Sages, the founder of the Ionian school
3. he must have developed his criticism and his new ideas while his master was alive
must have + 과거분사의 형태로 과거를 강하게 긍정적으로 추측하는 경우임. “틀림없이 ~했다” 로 해석함.
4. They seem to have died within a few years of each other
seem to have + 과거분사의 형태에서 have + 과거분사는 과거를 의미함. 즉, “서로 몇 년 안에 죽었던 듯하다”의 의미임. seem 다음에 곧바로 동사의 원형이 오면 현재를 의미함. 즉, She seems to be tired하면 “그녀는 (지금) 지친 듯이 보인다”의 의미임.
5. But there is no trace in the sources of a story of dissent, of any
이야기의 출처에도(부사구)
quarrel, or of any schism.
of dissent, of any quarrel, or any schism은 모두 trace를 수식함. no와 or가 맞물려 모두 부정함.
10. This suggest, I think, that it was Thales who founded the new tradition of freedom - based upon a new relation between master and pupil - and who thus created a new type of school, utterly different from the Pythagorean school. He seems to have been able to tolerate criticism. And what is more, he seems to have created the tradition that one ought to tolerate criticism.
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vocabulary
1. base v.:
2. thus: in that way, therefore
3. utterly: completely, totally, entirely, absolutely
4. tolerate: put up with, endure
5. what is more: 더욱 중요하게는
6. ought to: should, have to, must
구문
1. This suggest, I think, that it was Thales who founded the new
I think (that) this suggest that it was ~ that의 강조구문에서 that 대신 who를 사용함. 두 개의 who로 시작되는 절이 있음.
tradition of freedom - based upon a new relation between master and
과거분사 based로 시작되는 분사구문으로 앞의 the new tradition of freedom을 수식함.
pupil - and who thus created a new type of school, utterly different
utterly different 이하는 a new type of school을 수식하는 형용사구인데 different라는 형용사는 명사 뒤에서도 수식하기도 함.
from the Pythagorean school
2. he seems to have created the tradition that one ought to tolerate
the tradition과 that절은 동격임.
동사 seems 다음에 to have +과거분사의 형태로 “창조했던 듯하다”로 해석됨.
criticism
11. Yet I like to think that he did even more than this. I can hardly imagine a relationship between master and pupil in which the master merely tolerates criticism without actively encouraging it. It does not seem to me possible that a pupil who is being trained in the dogmatic attitude would ever dare to criticize the dogma (least of all that of a famous sage) and to voice his criticism. And it seems to me an easier and simpler explanation to assume that the master encouraged a critical attitude - possibly not from the outset, but only after he was struck by the pertinence of some questions asked, by the pupils perhaps, without any critical intention.
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vocabulary
1. yet: but, still, nevertheless, however
2. even: much, a lot（비교급을 수식하면서 “훨씬”의 의미)
3. imagine: guess, conjecture
4. hardly: almost not, scarcely
5. encourage: give courage to
6. merely: only
7. dare to ~: 감히 ~하다
8. voice v.: express one's feeling in words
9. assume: accept something as true before there is proof
10. possibly: perhaps, maybe
11. outset: beginning, start
12. strike - struck - struck: attack
13. pertinent: relevant to pertinence n.
구문
1. I can hardly imagine a relationship between master and pupil in
a relationship을 수식
which the master merely tolerates criticism without actively
고동색 부분은 관계대명사절로 a relationship between master and pupil을 수식함.
encouraging it
it = criticism
2. It does not seem to me possible that a pupil who is being trained
가주어 that 이하는 진주어
in the dogmatic attitude would ever dare to criticize the dogma
who is being trained in the dogmatic attitude는 앞의 a pupil을 수식하는 관계대명사절이고 is being trained는 be동사 + being + 과거분사의 형태로 수동 현재진행형임.
(least of all that of a famous sage) and to voice his criticism.
least of all은 "모든 것 중에서 최하로"의 의미이고 that은 the dogma임.
3. And it seems to me an easier and simpler explanation to assume
가주어 to assume 이하 진주어
that the master encouraged a critical attitude - possibly not from
the outset, but only after he was struck by the pertinence of some
questions asked, by the pupils perhaps, without any critical intention
4. after he was struck by the pertinence of some questions asked, by
수동태 분사구문으로 앞의 some questions를 수식함.
the pupils perhaps, without any critical intention
12. However this may be, the conjecture that Thales actively encouraged criticism in his pupils would explain the fact that the critical attitude towards the master's doctrine became part of the Ionian school tradition. I like to think that Thales was the first teacher who said to his pupils: 'This is how I see things - how I believe that things are. Try to improve upon my teaching.' (Those who believe that it is 'unhistorical' to attribute this undogmatic attitude to Thales may again be reminded of the fact that only two generations later we find a similar attitude consciously and clearly formulated in the fragments of Xenophanes.) At any rate, there is the historical fact that the Ionian school was the first in which pupils criticized their masters, in one generation after the other. There can be little doubt that the Greek tradition of philosophical criticism had its main source in Ionia.
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vocabulary
1. active: (in the habit of) doing things, lively actively ad.↔ passive
2. improve on/upon ~: produce something of a better standard or quality than something else
3. attribute/ascribe/impute A to B: A를 B에게서 기인한다고 생각하다
4. remind somebody of something: 누구에게 무엇을 상기시키다
5. similar: resembling something or somebody but not the same
6. formulate: create or prepare something carefully and with attention to detail, express something in clear and precise way
7. fragment: small part or piece of something broken off something
8. at any rate: anyway, anyhow
9. one after another/the other: 연달아 one generation after the other 연달은 세대에서
구문
1. However this may be, the conjecture that Thales actively
양보구문으로 “이것이 어떻든”으로 해석하며, no matter how this may be로 바꾸어 쓸 수 있음. 노란색의 the conjecture와 that절은 동격임.
encouraged criticism in his pupils would explain the fact that the
the fact와 that절은 동격임.
critical attitude towards the master's doctrine became part of the
towards the master's doctrine은 the critical attitude를 수식함.
Ionian school tradition
3. I like to think that Thales was the first teacher who said to his
who 이하는 the first teacher를 수식하는 관계대명사절임.
pupils: 'This is how I see things - how I believe that things are. Try
to improve upon my teaching.'
3. (Those who believe that it is 'unhistorical' to attribute this
who 이하 Thales까지는 those(the people)을 수식하는 관계대명사절임. that절에서 it은 가주어 to attribute에서 to Thales까지가 진주어임.
undogmatic attitude to Thales may again be reminded of the fact that
수동태 the fact와
that절은 동격임.
only two generations later we find a similar attitude consciously and
consciously and clearly formulated in the fragments of Xenophanes는 과거분사 formulated로 구성된 분사구문으로 앞의 a similar attitude를 수식함.
clearly formulated in the fragments of Xenophanes.)
4. there is the historical fact that the Ionian school was the first in
the historical fact와 that절은 동격임. in which부터 끝까지는 the first(school이 생략됨)를 수식하는 관계대명사절임.
which pupils criticized their masters, in one generation after the other
5. There can be little doubt that the Greek tradition of philosophical
doubt는 that절과 동격임. little은 없다는 부정의 의미이므로 that이하의 “있을 수 없다”나 “있을 리가 없다”는 의미임.
criticism had its main source in Ionia
13. It was a momentous innovation. It meant a break with the dogmatic tradition which permits only one school doctrine, and the introduction in its place of a tradition that admits a plurality of doctrines which all try to approach the truth by means of critical discussion.
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vocabulary
1. momentous: very important, serious
2. innovate: make changes, introduce new ideas, methods, etc
3. plural: of more than one plurality n.
4. by means of: by dint of, using
구문
1. It meant a break with the dogmatic tradition which permits only
which 이하 끝까지는 관계대명사절로 the dogmatic tradition을 수식함. that admits of plurality of doctrimes which all try to approach the truth by means of critical discussion은 관계대명사절로 a tradition을 수식함. which all try to approach the truth by means of critical discussion은 또 관계대명사절로 doctrines를 수식함. 관계대명사절 3개가 서로 포함하고 포함되고 있음.
one school doctrine, and the introduction in its place of a tradition
that admits a plurality of doctrines which all try to approach the
truth by means of critical discussion
14. It thus leads, almost by necessity, to the realization that our attempts to see and to find the truth are not final, but open to improvement; that our knowledge, our doctrine, is conjectural; that it consists of guesses, of hypotheses, rather than of final and certain truths; and that criticism and critical discussion are our only means of getting nearer to the truth. It thus leads to the tradition of bold conjectures and of free criticism, the tradition which created the rational or scientific attitude, and with it our Western civilization, the only civilization which is based upon science (though of course not upon science alone).
--------------------------------------------
vocabulary
1. lead to ~: produce, cause, make, result in, give rise to
2. necessity: circumstances that force one to do something, the state of being necessary
3. realization: understanding, awareness realize v.
4. final: at the end, coming last, that cannot be argued with or changed, conclusive
5. conjectural : of conjecture, of guessing
6. consist of ~: be composed of ~, be made up of ~, comprise
7. hypothesis: an idea or a suggestion that is based on known facts and is used as a basis for reasoning or further investigation
8. certain: sure beyond doubt, reliable
9. means: method
10. bold: brave
11. rational: suitable, reasonable, proper
12. alone: only
13. be based on/upon ~: ~에 기초하다/기초를 두다
구문
1. It thus leads, almost by necessity, to the realization that our
the realization과 that절은 동격임.
attempts to see and to find the truth are not final, but open to
to see and to find the truth는 to부정사로 명사 our attempts를 수식함. 명사를 수식하는 것이 원래 형용사이기 때문에 이 to부정사를 형용사적 용법이라고 함.
improvement
2. that our knowledge, our doctrine, is conjectural
our knowledge와 our doctrine은 동격 관계임.
3. It thus leads to the tradition of bold conjectures and of free
criticism, the tradition which created the rational or scientific
두 개의 tradition이 동격관계). which created the rational or scientific attitude, and with it our Western civilization은 관계대명사절로 앞의 the tradition을 수식함. the only civilization which is based upon science는 관계대명사절이 포함된 구로 앞의 our Western civilization과 동격임.
attitude, and with it our Western civilization, the only civilization
which is based upon science (though of course not upon science
alone)
15. In this rationalist tradition bold changes of doctrine are not forbidden. on the contrary, innovation is encouraged, and is regarded as success, as improvement, if it is based on the result of a critical discussion of its predecessors. The very boldness of an innovation is admired; for it can be controlled by the severity of its critical examination. This is why changes of doctrine, far from being made surreptitiously, are traditionally handed down together with the older doctrines and the names of the innovators. And the material for a history of ideas becomes part of the school tradition.
-----------------------------------------
vocabulary
1. rationalist a.: of rationalism
2. forbid-forbade- forbidden: order somebody not to do something
3. on the contrary: 반대로
4. encourage: give courage to
5. regard: consider
6. predecessor: 전임자 또는 이전의 것
7. very a.: 바로 그
8. admire: worship, respect greatly
9. severe: strict or harsh severity n.
10. examination: investigation, test
11. hand down: 계승해주다
구문
1. innovation is encouraged, and is regarded as success, as
수동태 수동태
improvement, if it is based on the result of a critical discussion of
its predecessors
2. The very boldness of an innovation is admired
수동태
3. This is why changes of doctrine, far from being made
(the reason) why에서 선행사 the reason이 생략됨. why 이하는 관계부사절임.
surreptitiously, are traditionally handed down together with the older
doctrines and the names of the innovators
-전체 내용-
그리스 철학의 초기 역사는, 특히 탈레스에서부터 플라톤까지의 역사는 찬란한 이야기이다. 그 역사는 너무나 뛰어나서 사실이 아닐 정도다. 모든 세대 속에서 우리는 엄청난 독창성과 깊이를 지닌 한 가지 새로운 우주론인 적어도 한 가지 새로운 철학을 발견한다. 이것이 어떻게 가능했을까? 물론 사람들은 독창성과 천재성을 설명할 수 없다. 그러나 사람들은 그것들을 조금 밝히려고 노력할 수 있다. 고대인들의 비밀은 무엇이었을까? 나는 그 비밀이 전통이었다고 - 비판적 토론의 전통 - 제안한다.
... 내가 말한 변화의 문제에 관한 이야기는 이성적인 토론인 비판적 논쟁에 관한 이야기이다. 새로운 아이디어들은 그런 상태로 제시되어, 공개적인 비판의 결과로서 나타난다. 비밀스런 아이디어 변경은, 있다고 할지라도, 거의 없다. 익명성 대신에 우리는 아이디어와 그 아이디어 창안자들의 역사를 발견한다.
여기에 독특한 현상이 있고, 그 현상은 그리스 철학이 지닌 놀라운 자유 및 창조성과 밀접하게 연결되어 있다. 이 현상을 우리는 어떻게 설명할 수 있을까? 우리가 설명해야 하는 것은 전통의 발흥이다. 그것은 다양한 학파들 사이에서, 그리고 훨씬 더 놀랍게, 동일한 학파 안에서 비판적 토론을 허용하거나 고취하는 전통이다. 그 까닭은 피타고라스학파 밖 어느 곳에서도 우리는 교설의 보전에 몰두하는 학파를 발견하지 못하기 때문이다. 대신에 우리는 교설의 변경, 새로운 아이디어들, 교설의 수정, 그리고 스승에 대한 철저한 비판을 발견한다.
(파메니데스에게서 우리는, 초기에, 심지어 매우 두드러진 현상을 - 두 가지 교설을 제시하여, 하나는 자신이 참이라고 말하고, 다른 하나는 거짓으로서 자신이 기술[記述]하는 철학자의 현상 - 발견한다. 그러나 파메니데스는 거짓 교설을 비난이나 비판의 대상으로만 만들지 않는다; 오히려 그는 거짓 교설을 인간이 지닌 망상적 견해에 대한, 현상에 지나지 않는 세상에 대한 아마도 최선의 설명으로서 - 인간이 내놓을 수 있는 최선의 설명 - 제공한다.)
어떻게 그리고 어디에서 이 비판적 전통이 세워졌을까? 이것은 진지하게 생각해볼만한 문제이다. 이만큼은 확실하다: 이오니아의 전통을 엘레아에 가져왔던 제노파네스는 자신의 가르침이 순전히 추측성이라는, 그리고 더 잘 알 다른 사람들이 아마도 올 것이라는 사실을 철저히 인식하고 있었다...
이 새로운 사고(思考)의 자유인 이 새로운 비판적 태도에 관한 최초의 징표를 우리가 찾는다면, 우리는 탈레스에 대한 아낙시맨더의 비판으로 이끌려 간다. 여기에 매우 두드러진 사실이 있다: 아낙시맨더는 자신의 스승이자 친척이고 7인의 현자의 한 사람인 이오니아학파의 창설자를 비판한다. 전설에 따르면 아낙시맨더는 탈레스보다 약 14살 아래여서, 틀림없이 자신의 스승이 생존해 있을 동안에 자신의 비판과 새로운 아이디어들을 개발했다. (그들은 서로 수년 사이에 사망했던 것으로 보인다) 그러나 한 가지 이야기의 근원들 속에는 불화나, 언쟁이나, 결별의 흔적이 없다.
내가 생각하기에 이것은 자유에 관한 새로운 전통을 세운 사람은 - 스승과 제자 사이의 새로운 관계를 기초로 - 그리하여 피타고라스학파와 완전히 다른 새로운 형태의 학파를 창설한 사람은 탈레스였음을 암시한다. 탈레스는 비판을 용인할 수 있었던 것으로 보인다. 그리고 더 중요하게, 탈레스는 사람은 비판을 용인해야 한다는 전통을 창시했던 것으로 보인다.
그러나 나는 탈레스가 이것보다 훨씬 더 많은 일을 했다고 생각하고 싶다. 나는 스승이 비판을 적극적으로 고취하지 않고 비판을 용인만 하는 사제 사이의 관계를 상상할 수 없다. 독단적 자세 속에서 훈련을 받고 있는 제자가 독단을 (유명한 현자의 독단은 특히 그렇다) 감히 비판하여 자신의 비판을 소리 낸다는 것은 나에게 가능하게 보이지 않는다. 그래서 스승인 탈레스가 비판을 고취했다고 - 아마도 처음부터는 아니지만, 아마도 비판적 의도 없이 제자들이 묻는 몇 가지 질문의 관련성에 의하여 충격을 받은 후에서야 - 가정하는 것은 나에게 더 쉽고 더 간단한 설명으로 보인다.
아무튼, 탈레스가 적극적으로 자신의 제자들 사이에서 비판을 고취했다는 추측은, 스승의 교설을 향한 비판적 자세가 이오니아학파가 지닌 전통의 한 부분이 되었다는 사실을 설명할 것이다. 나는 탈레스가 자신의 제자들에게 이렇게 말한 최초의 스승이었다고 생각하고 싶다: ‘이것이 내가 사물들을 보는 방법이다 - 사물이 존재한다고 내가 믿는 방법이다. 나의 가르침을 개선하려고 노력하라.’ (이 비독단적인 자세를 탈레스의 것으로 여기는 것이 ‘비역사적’이라고 믿는 사람들은, 겨우 두 세대 후에 우리가 제노파네스가 남긴 단편[斷片] 글들에서 의식적이고 명백하게 형성된 유사한 자세를 발견한다는 사실을 다시 상기할 것이다.) 아무튼 이오니아학파가 여러 세대를 이어가면서 제자들이 스승들을 비판했던 최초의 학파였다는 역사적 사실이 있다. 철학적 비판이라는 그리스 전통이 그 주요 근원을 이오니아에 가지고 있었던 것은 의심의 여지가 없다.
그것은 획기적인 혁신이었다. 그것은 오직 한 가지 학파 교설만을 허용하는 독단적 전통과의 결별을, 그리고 그 독단적 전통의 자리에 모든 사람들이 비판적 토론을 통해서 진리에 접근하려고 노력하는 교설의 복수성을 인정하는 전통을 도입하는 것을, 의미했다.
그리하여 그 혁신은, 거의 필연적으로, 진리를 보고 발견하려는 우리의 시도들은 최종적이 아니라 개선에 열려있다는 깨달음을 낳았다; 우리의 지식인 우리의 교설은 추측성이라는 깨달음; 우리의 지식인 우리의 교설은, 최종적이어서 확실한 진리들이라기보다는, 추측들과 가설들로 구성되어 있다는 깨달음; 그래서 비판과 비판적 토론은 진리에 더 가까이 접근하는 우리가 지닌 유일한 수단이라는 깨달음. 그리하여 그 깨달음은, 이성적인 과학적 자세를 창조한 전통인 대담한 추측과 자유로운 비판의 전통을, 그리고 그 전통과 함께 (물론 과학만이 아니라할지라도) 과학에 근거한 유일한 문명인 우리의 서구 문명을 창조한 전통을, 낳았다.
이 이성주의적 전통 속에서는 교설의 대담한 변경이 금지되지 않는다. 반대로 혁신은, 이전 혁신을 비판적으로 토론한 결과에 근거한다면, 고취되어서 성공으로서, 개선으로서 간주된다. 혁신의 바로 그 대담함이 찬양을 받는다; 그 까닭은 그 대담함이 비판적으로 검토되는 엄격함에 의하여 조절될 수 있기 때문이다. 이것이 교설의 변경이, 결코 은밀하게 이루어지지 않고, 옛 이론들 및 혁신한 사람들의 이름과 함께 전통적으로 계승되는 이유이다. 그래서 아이디어의 역사에 대한 자료는 학파 전통의 일부가 된다.
- Karl Popper, "Conjectures and Refutations" -
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